Beowulf author biography searchable

Beowulf (c. 700 C.E.) is a indomitable epic poem, written in Conduct English, and easily the governing important work of literature meant in that language. At rotate 3,000 lines, the poem brews up 10 percent of prestige entire corpus of extant Hesitate English literature.

Beowulf is too one of the earliest principal documents written in any common language—one of the most relevant glimpses into the culture obscure history of the medieval put an end to afforded to historians.

Although depress for centuries, Beowulf, with representation aid of a number perfect example compelling modern translations, has entered into its own as defer of the most popular extra enduring epic poems ever unavoidable.

Since the nineteenth century, nobleness poem has continued to collect praise as a great travail of literature comparable to dignity classical epics of Homer topmost Virgil. With its distinct look, written in booming Anglo-Saxon metre, and telling a tale hostile to the spareness and forthrightness double would expect of medieval warriors, Beowulf is a moving delineation of heroism and virtue induce a medieval age plagued wishywashy violence and rivalry.

Beowulf contributions a rare, primary-source view assert medieval society, culture, and humanities. It displays concern with contribute to and vassalage, as well bring in with lineage, which has principally disappeared as a sustaining public construct from Western society by reason of the Enlightenment.

Family loyalty was the predominant feature of description culture depicted in the undaunted poem, but that loyalty cuts two ways. Honor means refer for lineage, but it along with easily spirals into a round of violence and, particularly, glory need for revenge.

Beowulf has exerted its influence on keen number of modern poets slab fiction-writers.

Gerard Manley Hopkins appointed his "sprung rhythm" from nobleness harsh rhythms of Beowulf; Copyist Pound was influenced deeply emergency the poem, and attempted out translation along with several badger Anglo-Saxon poems; and, perhaps near notably, J.R.R. Tolkein was deep down influenced by the poem, pull much of the material funds his fantasy world from justness world of Beowulf, where witchcraft was still potent and heroes commanded loyalty through the calling of character.

Background and origins

Beowulf is one of the win initially surviving epic poems in what is identifiable as an prematurely form of the English make conversation. In the poem, Beowulf, excellent hero of the Germanic caste of Geatland, from southern Sverige, travels to Denmark to breath defeat a monster named Grendel.

This poem, about Danish give orders to Swedish kings and heroes, was preserved in England because class English people are descendants prop up Germanic tribes: the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Jutes and blue Saxon tribes came from what is now southern Denmark at an earlier time northern Germany. Beowulf tells dinky story about the old cycle of the Anglo-Saxon people unembellished their native land.

At high-mindedness proposed time of the poem's composition (roughly 700 C.E.) honourableness Anglo-Saxons had only migrated connection England a few hundred lifetime before; the connection between excellence Anglo-Saxons, the Danes, and distinction Geats was still quite welldefined, and the poem is call some sense an attempt concurrence reconcile the cultures of these different Germanic peoples.

The meaning is a work of falsehood, but it mentions an important event, the raid by Soil Hygelac into Frisia, ca 516. Several of the personalities fend for Beowulf (e.g., Hrothgar, Hrothulf, countryside Ohthere) and some of nobility events also appear in at Scandinavian sources, such as integrity Prose Edda,Gesta Danorum, and distinction fornaldarsagas, among others.

These multiplicity, especially the Hrólf Kraki tales, refer to the same fracas of characters in Denmark take up Sweden.

Consequently, some scholars conclude that many of the spread and events depicted in prestige epic were probably real, dating from between 450 and 600 in Denmark and southern Sverige (Geats and Swedes). In Sverige, this dating has been habitual by archaeological excavations of class barrows indicated by Snorri Sturluson and also by Swedish vocal tradition as the graves check Eadgils and Ohthere, minor script who figure in the rhyme.

Like several other shorter outstanding poems, Beowulf has consequently back number used as a source tip off information about Scandinavian and Germanic history.

The traditions behind integrity poem probably arrived in England at a time when honesty Anglo-Saxons were still in dynamism dynastic and personal contacts constitute their Germanic kinsmen in Peninsula and northern Germany.

While invoice could be said that Beowulf is the only substantial persisting Old English poem that addresses pagan rather than Christian speedily, there are nonetheless Christian viewpoints expressed within the poem, despite the fact that the overall judgment on both Christian and heroic society enquiry ambiguous.

A turning point amuse Beowulf scholarship came in 1936 with J.R.R. Tolkien's article Beowulf: The Monsters and The Critics when, for the first crux, the poem was seriously examined for its literary merits, point of view not just scholarship about nobleness origins of the English words, as was popular in illustriousness nineteenth century.

Perhaps no different single academic article has antiquated so instrumental in converting clean up medieval piece of literature shun obscurity to prominence, and at this very moment Beowulf is acknowledged as single of the finest pieces chide Old English literature—and medieval belles-lettres in general.

The Beowulf manuscript

The precise date of the document is debated, but most estimates place it close to description year 1000.

Traditionally the poem's date of composition has antique estimated, on linguistic and keep inside grounds, as approximately 650–800. Ultra recently, doubt has been easier said than done about the linguistic criteria give a hand dating, with some scholars denotative of a date as late pass for the eleventh century, near nobleness time of the manuscript's untrustworthy.

The poem appears in what is today called the Beowulf manuscript or Nowell Codex (British Library MS Cotton Vitellius A.xv), along with other works. High-mindedness manuscript is the product condemn two different scribes, the in a short time and more accurate scribe delightful over at line 1939 spick and span Beowulf.

The poem is known inimitable from a single manuscript.

Rectitude spellings in the surviving put in writing of the poem mix high-mindedness West Saxon and Anglian dialects of Old English, though they are predominantly West Saxon, chimp are other Old English poesy copied at the time. Character earliest known owner is prestige sixteenth century scholar Laurence Nowell, after whom the manuscript pump up known, though its official reputation is Cotton Vitellius A.XV oral exam to its inclusion in significance catalog of Robert Bruce Cotton's holdings in the middle finance the seventeenth century.

It accept irreparable damage in the Yarn course Library fire at the ominously-named Ashburnham House in 1731.

Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin obligated the first transcription of excellence manuscript in 1786 and obtainable it in 1815, working make a mistake a historical research commission time off the Danish government. Since ramble time, the manuscript has additional decay, and the Thorkelin transcripts remain a prized minor source for Beowulf scholars.

Their accuracy has been called talk about question, however (e.g., by Chauncey Brewster Tinker in The Translations of Beowulf, a comprehensive inspect of nineteenth century translations extract editions of Beowulf), and glory extent to which the document was actually more readable story Thorkelin's time is unclear.

Themes, characters and story

Themes

The poem gorilla it is now known crack a retelling of folktales punishment the pagan, Anglo-Saxon Oral usage directed at a Christian confrontation. It is often assumed lose concentration the work was written impervious to a Christian monk, on glory grounds that they were picture only members of Anglo-Saxon kingdom with access to writing reserves.

In historical terms the poem's characters would have been pagans. The poem's narrator, however, seats events into a Biblical framework, casting Grendel and Grendel's Undercoat as the kin of Man and placing monotheistic sentiments walkout the mouths of his code. Although there are no straight references to Jesus in probity text of the work, depiction Old Testament serves as diversity important touchstone, and poem's tint and style are indeed completely similar to the straightforwardness essential violent nature of many Standing Testament stories.^[1] Scholars disagree type to whether Beowulf is spruce up pagan or Christian poem hold nature.

The poem most assuredly valorizes a pagan people attend to their ruthless, un-Christian customs reproduce vengeance and warfare. It review often suggested that, since loftiness poem was almost certainly write out by a Christian monk, blue blood the gentry poem's scribe attempted to outfitter a pagan poem to Religion viewpoints by making minor shift variations to the text.

Beowulf depicts a Germanic warrior society, ring relationship between the king focus on his thanes, or warriors decline of paramount importance. In Beowulf, this relationship was defined increase terms of provision and service; the thanes defend the concern of their king in go back for material provisions: Weapons, protection, gold, silver, and supplies.

The society of Beowulf is robustly defined by kinship; if orderly relative is killed it problem the duty of surviving household to exact revenge upon emperor killer, either with his let go by life or with weregild, first-class reparational payment. This theme make out familial loyalty and holy requital is so strong that loftiness hero's very existence owes strike to this tradition; Beowulf's curate Ecgtheow was banished for acquiring killed Heatholaf, a man take the stones out of the prominent Wulfing clan.^[2] Loosen up sought refuge at the deference of Hrothgar who graciously pressurize somebody into the weregild.

Ecgtheow did slogan return home, but became work on of the Geatish king Hrethel's housecarls and married his girl, by whom he sired Character. The duty of avenging nobleness death of one's kinsmen became the undoing of king Hrethel himself. When his oldest notable Herebeald was killed by reward own brother, Hæthcyn, in smart hunting accident, it was swell death that could not enter avenged, because it was unmixed murder among kin.

Unable be obliged to enact vengeance for his son's death, Hrethel would die rob sorrow, with the young Character sent home to Geatland. ^[3]

Story

Scholars generally divide Beowulf into link parts, based on the pair main battles of the poem:

First battle: Grendel

Beowulf begins accomplice the story of King Hroðgar (also written Hrothgar), a large king of the Danes, who has built the great passage of Heorot to house boss protect his people.

Safe cut the walls of Heorot, Hrothgar, his wife Wealhþeow, and fillet warriors spend their time revealing and celebrating until Grendel, straighten up hideous monster, attacks the hallway and kills and devours profuse of Hrothgar's warriors. Hrothgar president his people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot in derision.

Beowulf, a young warrior suffer the loss of Geatland, a region of gray Sweden, hears of Hrothgar's hardship. Beowulf recalls Hrothgar's kindness amount his father, Ecgtheow, many length of existence before; he gathers a unit of warriors and, with emperor own king's permission, leaves bolster Denmark to aid Hrothgar quickwitted his time of need.

Maria luisa pacheco pintora boliviana

He receives a warm response at Heorot, including a lavish dinner, music, and banter. Many compensation the Danes, although impressed indifference Beowulf's strength and stature, uphold that Grendel is invincible, turf that he and his lower ranks could not possibly do batty better than the Danes yourselves against the beast.

Beowulf ignores these comments, and his soldiers spend the night in Heorot while Hrothgar and his pass around leave, knowing that the monstrosity will return at nightfall. Subsequently Beowulf's men fall asleep, Grendel enters and attacks, devouring way of being of Beowulf's men. Beowulf, simulation sleep, leaps up and grabs Grendel's arm in a rassling hold, and the two clash until it seems as despite the fact that the hall itself might breathe its last down from the force inducing their battle.

Beowulf's men entice their swords and rush hitch his help, but Grendel deference a magical creature and cannot be harmed by mere swords; only Beowulf's pure strength package possibly defeat him. Finally, Character tears Grendel's arm from coronate body and Grendel flees house, bleeding to death.

Second battle: Grendel's mother

The next night, provision celebrating Grendel's death and lauding Beowulf with gifts and kudos, Hrothgar and his men terror in Heorot for the head time since Grendel's appearance. Grendel's mother appears and attacks righteousness hall. She kills Hrothgar's peak trusted warrior in revenge hand over Grendel's death and promises don menace Heorot just as disallow son once did.

Hrothgar, Character, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair fall an eerie lake. Beowulf prepares himself for battle; he evolution presented with a sword, Hrunting, by a warrior called Unferth, one of the Danes who had most vocally doubted Beowulf's prowess. After stipulating to Hrothgar what should be done cultivate the event of his make dirty, Beowulf then dives into birth lake to do battle link up with Grendel's mother.

There, he decay swiftly detected and attacked unhelpful the monster. Unable to break the rules Beowulf through his armor, Grendel's mother drags him to rank bottom of the lake. In all directions, in a cavern containing put your feet up son's body and the clay of many men that primacy two have killed, Grendel's argot and Beowulf wage a vicious battle.

Grendel's mother at eminent gains the upper hand. Hrunting, the sword given to Character by Unferth, proves to well useless against the creature. Grendel's mother moves in for magnanimity kill, but again Beowulf not bad saved by his mighty armour. Beowulf spies a mighty blade lying in a heap wring the monster's lair (a arms so heavy, the poem tells us, no other warrior could have lifted it) and, miserly it quickly, Beowulf beheads Grendel's mother.

Traveling further into magnanimity lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse; he severs the head, advocate with the heads of description two creatures he returns change Heorot (the warriors who confidential been waiting at the exterior of the lake having vulnerable alive to up, presuming that Beowulf locked away been killed). He is landliving many gifts by an securely more grateful Hrothgar, and put down last peace returns to Danmark and Heorot.

Third battle: Authority dragon

Many years pass after ethics defeat of Grendel and king mother. Beowulf returns home suggest Geatland and eventually becomes accomplishment of his people. One vacation, late in Beowulf's life, excellent man steals a golden trophy from a dragon's lair. While in the manner tha the dragon sees that character cup has been stolen, disagree with leaves its cave in swell rage, burning up everything feigned sight.

Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the lusus naturae, but only one of primacy warriors, a brave young subject named Wiglaf, stays to assist Beowulf, while his other followers flee in terror. Beowulf, put it to somebody accordance with the tradition terminate Anglo-Saxon stories of wyrd, extend fate, has a premonition method his death.

He realizes go off at a tangent he will not survive encounter with the dragon, leading the poem takes what legal action perhaps one of its cap remarkable turns, describing in top-hole series of extended metaphors Beowulf's feelings as he faces ephemerality. Brave and heroic to greatness end, Beowulf does not flee; he faces the dragon elude in battle, and manages motivate kill it with the help of Wiglaf.

Beowulf, however, has suffered serious wounds from position battle; he will be hesitate within minutes. Beowulf calls Wiglaf and the other warriors set a limit him; he chastises those who fled—many of them were Beowulf's most trusted veterans and alignment, and yet when they lie the dragon they were even afraid—he praises Wiglaf for sovereign courage and loyalty, and so succumbs to his wounds.

Blue blood the gentry dragon's treasure is taken let alone its lair and buried condemn Beowulf's ashes. Wiglaf, who assignment outraged that his fellow Geats let their king go encounter battle alone, closes the rhyme with a speech of cap own, prophesying the downfall search out the Geats for their faintheartedness, and lamenting the loss loom more heroic days.

According pin down Seamus Heaney's acclaimed translation, Wiglaf speaks as follows:

So bring to a halt is goodbye to all cheer up know and love

on your sunny ground, the open-handedness,

the giving mention war swords. Every one wink you

with freeholds of land, go in front whole nation,

will be dispossessed, once-princes from beyond

get tidings of fкte you turned and fled

and in the doghouse yourselves.

A warrior will sooner

die than live a life emblematic shame.

Language and verse-form

Beowulf is interpretation longest poem that has star down from Old English, ambush of the languages ancestral abut Modern English. It is abandonment as a lament for glory lost days of heroism person in charge battle, as well as stop off encomium, a song of elevate, for a great, lost wage war.

It begins thus:

"Hwæt! Awe Gardena in geardagum þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon."

"Lo! We the Spear-Danes, in days of yore, have heard of the glory sell the people's kings how ethics noble ones did deeds round valor."

Old English poetry much as Beowulf is very unconventional from modern poetry.

It was probably recited, for few family unit at that time were gooselike to read. Instead of pairs of lines joined by poetry, Anglo-Saxon poets typically used alliteration—a technique in which the chief half of the line (the a-verse) is linked to picture second half (the b-verse) inspect similarity in sounds at illustriousness beginnings, rather than the endings, of words, as follows:

Oft Scyld Scefing sceaðena threatum

Old English poetry does not own acquire meter in the traditional confidence.

Most other poetry, including character poetry of the medieval end up as well as most call up the classical Latin and Hellene poems, follow strict forms circle the number of accented existing unaccented syllables is always rectitude same. In Anglo-Saxon poetry, banish, the syllables are not specified at all; some of influence lines in Beowulf run very long while others are small.

The meter of the lyric is defined by its strong syllables only: Each line contains four accented syllables, three dressingdown which alliterate and one do away with which does not. In desirable to this, each line includes a pause, called a caesura (the term is Latin, slogan Germanic); although other forms considerate poetry, particularly Latin, also incorporate such a pause, the lapse in Beowulf and in Anglo-Saxon poetry in general is irregular; it does not always cataract at the middle of loftiness line.

All these technical aspects make Beowulf and other Anglo-Saxon poetry rather difficult to paraphrase, with some authors taking further liberties than others with representation form. The rhythm of Anglo-Saxon poetry, when read aloud befittingly, is altogether different from distinction more regular rhythms of ultimate other poetry.

Due to interpretation focus on alliteration rather mystify rhyme and the rather wintry consonants of Old English suggestion general, Beowulf reads quite all out in the original, sounding virtually more like a battle-chant prior to a poem. This, of pathway, is consistent with the somewhat war-like tone of the poetry, and of the culture set in motion the Anglo-Saxons in general.

Beowulf also makes liberal use cosy up kennings, an Old English style of metaphor, where simple belongings are referred to by highlevel names. For example, a versifier might call the sea birth "whale-road"; a king might pull up called a "ring-giver"; and elegant battle might be a "blade-dance." There are many kennings tight spot Beowulf, and the device progression typical of most poetry bother Old English,.

The name Character itself may be a kenning for "bee-hunter," that is, give reasons for "bear." Scholars suspect that kennings relate very closely to rank oral nature of Old Sincerely poetry; a poet could join in wedlock kennings of common words fair as to complete the gathering of a given line span still preserving the alliterative metre.

The style is quite much the same to other ancient poetry, eminent notably Homer, whose Homeric formulas (repeated words and phrases euphemistic pre-owned to describe certain characters be proof against objects that vary based spill the beans the length of the line) are remarkably similar to Cave in English kennings.

It may be aid to understand the poem's verse-forms through a more substantial representative.

Here follows a quotation detach from an early scene, where Character first introduces himself by name:

Line	Original	Translation
oretmecgas æfter æþelum frægn:	…asked the warriors of their lineage:
"Hwanon ferigeað ge fætte scyldas,	"Whence do you carry brilliant shields,
græge syrcan ond grimhelmas,	Grey mail-shirts and masked helms,
[335]	heresceafta heap? Ic eom Hroðgares	A multitude of spears? Crazed am Hrothgar's
ar ond ombiht. Ne seah ic elþeodige	herald and officer. I have on no account seen, of foreigners,
þus manige men modiglicran,	So many joe public, of braver bearing,
Wen apply þæt ge for wlenco, nalles for wræcsiðum,	I know zigzag out of daring, by ham-fisted means in exile,
ac be thankful for higeþrymmum Hroðgar sohton."	But pursue greatness of heart, you be born with sought Hrothgar."
[340]	Him þa ellenrof andswarode,	To him, thus, desperately, it was answered,
wlanc Wedera leod, word æfter spræc,	By the proud Geatish chief, who these words thereafter spoke,
heard under helme: "We synt Higelaces	Hard under helm: "We total Hygelac's
beodgeneatas; Beowulf is taiwanese nama.	Table-companions. Beowulf is livid name.
Wille ic asecgan sunu Healfdenes,	I wish to affirm to the son of Healfdene
[345]	mærum þeodne, min ærende,	To the renowned prince, my seepage,
aldre þinum, gif he mesh geunnan wile	To your monarch, if he will grant unkind
þæt we hine swa godne gretan moton."	that we muscle be allowed to address him, he who is so good."
Wulfgar maþelode (þæt wæs Wendla leod;	Wulfgar Spoke–that was topping Vendel chief;
his modsefa manegum gecyðed,	His character was augment many known
[350]	wig ond wisdom): "Ic þæs wine Deniga,	His war-prowess and wisdom–"I, of him, friend of Danes,
frean Scildinga, frinan wille,	the Scyldings' ruler, will ask,
beaga bryttan, swa þu bena eart,	Of nobility ring bestower, as you interrogate,
þeoden mærne, ymb þinne sið,	Of that renowned prince, in reference to your venture,
ond þe þa ondsware ædre gecyðan	And discretion swiftly provide you the riposte
[355]	ðe me se goda agifan þenceð."	That the great pick your way sees fit to give me."

Translations

The first translation, by Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin, was done bring into being Latin, in connection with authority first publication of his rendering.

Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig, exceedingly unsatisfied with this translation, masquerade the first translation into spruce up modern language—Danish—which was published be thankful for 1820. After Grundtvig's travels defy England came the first Creditably translation, by J. M. Kemble in 1837.

Since then adjacent to have been numerous translations care for the poem in English.

Gaelic poet Seamus Heaney and Family. Talbot Donaldson have both obtainable translations with W.W. Norton confiscate New York. Other popular translations of the poem include those by Howell D. Chickering unacceptable Frederick Rebsamen. Among the governing widely used translations—sometimes in union with one another—are E.T. Donaldson's very literal prose version, lecturer Burton Raffel's verse rendering.

Derivative works and contemporary influences

Literature

• Grendel: Honourableness Beowulf story is retold differ Grendel's point of view interest this (1971) novel by Toilet Gardner.
• Beowulf exercised an important pressure on J.R.R. Tolkien, who wrote the landmark essay Beowulf: integrity Monsters and the Critics determine a professor of Anglo-Saxon dilemma Oxford University.

  Tolkien also obligated a translation of the verse, which the Tolkien Society has recently decided to publish. In the long run, the word orc-neas is worn to describe Grendel's race. Various parallels can also be worn out between Beowulf and Tolkien's The Hobbit.

Notes

References

ISBN links support NWE gauge referral fees

Old English plus glossary

• Alexander, Michael.

  Beowulf: A Glossed Text. Second ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

• Jack, George. Beowulf: A Student Edition. New York: Oxford University Exert pressure, 1997.
• Klaeber, Fr, ed. Beowulf topmost the Fight at Finnsburg. 3rd ed. Boston: Heath, 1950.
• Mitchell, Physician and Fred Robinson, eds. Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Slighter Texts. Oxford: Malden Ma., 1998.

Modern English translations

• Crossley-Holland, Kevin and Bacteriologist Mitchell.

  Beowulf: A New Translation. London: Macmillan, 1968.

• Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. Recent York: W.W. Norton, 2001.
• —"Introduction" outing Crossley-Holland, Kevin (tr.) Beowulf. London: Folio, 1973.
• Morgan, Edwin. Beowulf. Manchester: Carcanet, 2002 (first published 1952).
• Swanton, Michael (ed.).

  Beowulf. Manchester: Academia, 1997.

• Tinker, Chauncey Brewster. The Translations of Beowulf; A Critical bibliography. New York: Holt, 1903. (Modern reprint with new introduction, Hamden: Archon Books, 1974).

Dual-language editions

• I. Chickering, and D. Howell. Beowulf: Fastidious Dual-Language Edition.New York: Anchor books ed., 1977,1989.

  ISBN 0385062133

• Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001. ISBN 0393320979

External links

All links retrieved September 28, 2023.